912. Sort an Array - Explanation

Description

You are given an array of integers nums, sort the array in ascending order and return it.

You must solve the problem without using any built-in functions in O(nlog(n)) time complexity and with the smallest space complexity possible.

Example 1:

Input: nums = [10,9,1,1,1,2,3,1]

Output: [1,1,1,1,2,3,9,10]

Example 2:

Input: nums = [5,10,2,1,3]

Output: [1,2,3,5,10]

Constraints:

1 <= nums.length <= 50,000.
-50,000 <= nums[i] <= 50,000

Topics

Company Tags

Please upgrade to NeetCode Pro to view company tags.

Prerequisites

Before attempting this problem, you should be comfortable with:

Recursion and Divide & Conquer - Most efficient sorting algorithms (Quick Sort, Merge Sort) recursively divide the problem into subproblems
Arrays and In-Place Manipulation - Understanding how to swap elements and modify arrays without extra space
Binary Heap Data Structure - Required for understanding Heap Sort and the heapify operation
Hash Maps - Used in Counting Sort to track frequency of elements

1. Quick Sort

Intuition

Quick sort works by selecting a pivot element and partitioning the array so that elements smaller than the pivot go to its left and larger elements go to its right. This implementation uses median-of-three pivot selection (comparing left, middle, and right elements) to avoid worst-case performance on already sorted arrays. After partitioning, we recursively sort the two halves.

Algorithm

Base case: if the subarray has 0 or 1 elements, handle directly with a simple swap if needed.
Select pivot using median-of-three: compare elements at left, middle, and right positions.
Partition the array:
- Move elements smaller than pivot to the left side.
- Move elements larger than pivot to the right side.
- Place the pivot in its final sorted position.
Recursively apply quick sort to the left and right partitions.
Return the sorted array.

class Solution:
    def partition(self, nums: List[int], left: int, right: int) -> int:
        mid = (left + right) >> 1
        nums[mid], nums[left + 1] = nums[left + 1], nums[mid]

        if nums[left] > nums[right]:
            nums[left], nums[right] = nums[right], nums[left]
        if nums[left + 1] > nums[right]:
            nums[left + 1], nums[right] = nums[right], nums[left + 1]
        if nums[left] > nums[left + 1]:
            nums[left], nums[left + 1] = nums[left + 1], nums[left]

        pivot = nums[left + 1]
        i = left + 1
        j = right

        while True:
            while True:
                i += 1
                if not nums[i] < pivot:
                    break
            while True:
                j -= 1
                if not nums[j] > pivot:
                    break
            if i > j:
                break
            nums[i], nums[j] = nums[j], nums[i]

        nums[left + 1], nums[j] = nums[j], nums[left + 1]
        return j

    def quickSort(self, nums: List[int], left: int, right: int) -> None:
        if right <= left + 1:
            if right == left + 1 and nums[right] < nums[left]:
                nums[left], nums[right] = nums[right], nums[left]
            return

        j = self.partition(nums, left, right)
        self.quickSort(nums, left, j - 1)
        self.quickSort(nums, j + 1, right)

    def sortArray(self, nums: List[int]) -> List[int]:
        self.quickSort(nums, 0, len(nums) - 1)
        return nums

public class Solution {
    private int partition(int[] nums, int left, int right) {
        int mid = (left + right) >> 1;
        swap(nums, mid, left + 1);

        if (nums[left] > nums[right])
            swap(nums, left, right);
        if (nums[left + 1] > nums[right])
            swap(nums, left + 1, right);
        if (nums[left] > nums[left + 1])
            swap(nums, left, left + 1);

        int pivot = nums[left + 1];
        int i = left + 1;
        int j = right;

        while (true) {
            while (nums[++i] < pivot);
            while (nums[--j] > pivot);
            if (i > j) break;
            swap(nums, i, j);
        }

        nums[left + 1] = nums[j];
        nums[j] = pivot;
        return j;
    }

    private void swap(int[] nums, int i, int j) {
        int temp = nums[i];
        nums[i] = nums[j];
        nums[j] = temp;
    }

    private void quickSort(int[] nums, int left, int right) {
        if (right <= left + 1) {
            if (right == left + 1 && nums[right] < nums[left])
                swap(nums, left, right);
            return;
        }

        int j = partition(nums, left, right);
        quickSort(nums, left, j - 1);
        quickSort(nums, j + 1, right);
    }

    public int[] sortArray(int[] nums) {
        quickSort(nums, 0, nums.length - 1);
        return nums;
    }
}

class Solution {
public:
int partition(vector<int>& nums, int left, int right) {
        int mid = (left + right) >> 1;
        swap(nums[mid], nums[left + 1]);

        if (nums[left] > nums[right])
            swap(nums[left], nums[right]);
        if (nums[left + 1] > nums[right])
            swap(nums[left + 1], nums[right]);
        if (nums[left] > nums[left + 1])
            swap(nums[left], nums[left + 1]);

        int pivot = nums[left + 1];
        int i = left + 1;
        int j = right;

        while (true) {
            while (nums[++i] < pivot);
            while (nums[--j] > pivot);
            if (i > j) break;
            swap(nums[i], nums[j]);
        }

        nums[left + 1] = nums[j];
        nums[j] = pivot;
        return j;
    }

    void quickSort(vector<int>& nums, int left, int right) {
        if (right <= left + 1) {
            if (right == left + 1 && nums[right] < nums[left])
                swap(nums[left], nums[right]);
            return;
        }

        int j = partition(nums, left, right);
        quickSort(nums, left, j - 1);
        quickSort(nums, j + 1, right);
    }

    vector<int> sortArray(vector<int>& nums) {
        quickSort(nums, 0, nums.size() - 1);
        return nums;
    }
};

class Solution {
    /**
     * @param {number[]} nums
     * @return {number[]}
     */
    sortArray(nums) {
        function partition(left, right) {
            const mid = (left + right) >> 1;
            [nums[mid], nums[left + 1]] = [nums[left + 1], nums[mid]];

            if (nums[left] > nums[right])
                [nums[left], nums[right]] = [nums[right], nums[left]];
            if (nums[left + 1] > nums[right])
                [nums[left + 1], nums[right]] = [nums[right], nums[left + 1]];
            if (nums[left] > nums[left + 1])
                [nums[left], nums[left + 1]] = [nums[left + 1], nums[left]];

            const pivot = nums[left + 1];
            let i = left + 1;
            let j = right;

            while (true) {
                while (nums[++i] < pivot);
                while (nums[--j] > pivot);
                if (i > j) break;
                [nums[i], nums[j]] = [nums[j], nums[i]];
            }

            nums[left + 1] = nums[j];
            nums[j] = pivot;
            return j;
        }

        function quickSort(left, right) {
            if (right <= left + 1) {
                if (right == left + 1 && nums[right] < nums[left])
                    [nums[left], nums[right]] = [nums[right], nums[left]];
                return;
            }

            const j = partition(left, right);
            quickSort(left, j - 1);
            quickSort(j + 1, right);
        }

        quickSort(0, nums.length - 1);
        return nums;
    }
}

public class Solution {
    public int[] SortArray(int[] nums) {
        QuickSort(nums, 0, nums.Length - 1);
        return nums;
    }

    private void QuickSort(int[] nums, int left, int right) {
        if (right <= left + 1) {
            if (right == left + 1 && nums[right] < nums[left]) {
                Swap(nums, left, right);
            }
            return;
        }

        int j = Partition(nums, left, right);
        QuickSort(nums, left, j - 1);
        QuickSort(nums, j + 1, right);
    }

    private int Partition(int[] nums, int left, int right) {
        int mid = (left + right) >> 1;
        Swap(nums, mid, left + 1);

        if (nums[left] > nums[right]) Swap(nums, left, right);
        if (nums[left + 1] > nums[right]) Swap(nums, left + 1, right);
        if (nums[left] > nums[left + 1]) Swap(nums, left, left + 1);

        int pivot = nums[left + 1];
        int i = left + 1, j = right;

        while (true) {
            while (++i <= right && nums[i] < pivot) ;
            while (--j >= left && nums[j] > pivot) ;

            if (i > j) break;

            Swap(nums, i, j);
        }

        Swap(nums, left + 1, j);
        return j;
    }

    private void Swap(int[] nums, int i, int j) {
        int temp = nums[i];
        nums[i] = nums[j];
        nums[j] = temp;
    }
}

func sortArray(nums []int) []int {
    quickSort(nums, 0, len(nums)-1)
    return nums
}

func quickSort(nums []int, left, right int) {
    if right <= left+1 {
        if right == left+1 && nums[right] < nums[left] {
            nums[left], nums[right] = nums[right], nums[left]
        }
        return
    }

    j := partition(nums, left, right)
    quickSort(nums, left, j-1)
    quickSort(nums, j+1, right)
}

func partition(nums []int, left, right int) int {
    mid := (left + right) >> 1
    nums[mid], nums[left+1] = nums[left+1], nums[mid]

    if nums[left] > nums[right] {
        nums[left], nums[right] = nums[right], nums[left]
    }
    if nums[left+1] > nums[right] {
        nums[left+1], nums[right] = nums[right], nums[left+1]
    }
    if nums[left] > nums[left+1] {
        nums[left], nums[left+1] = nums[left+1], nums[left]
    }

    pivot := nums[left+1]
    i := left + 1
    j := right

    for {
        for i++; nums[i] < pivot; i++ {}
        for j--; nums[j] > pivot; j-- {}
        if i > j {
            break
        }
        nums[i], nums[j] = nums[j], nums[i]
    }

    nums[left+1], nums[j] = nums[j], nums[left+1]
    return j
}

class Solution {
    fun sortArray(nums: IntArray): IntArray {
        quickSort(nums, 0, nums.size - 1)
        return nums
    }

    private fun quickSort(nums: IntArray, left: Int, right: Int) {
        if (right <= left + 1) {
            if (right == left + 1 && nums[right] < nums[left]) {
                nums[left] = nums[right].also { nums[right] = nums[left] }
            }
            return
        }

        val j = partition(nums, left, right)
        quickSort(nums, left, j - 1)
        quickSort(nums, j + 1, right)
    }

    private fun partition(nums: IntArray, left: Int, right: Int): Int {
        val mid = (left + right) shr 1
        nums[mid] = nums[left + 1].also { nums[left + 1] = nums[mid] }

        if (nums[left] > nums[right]) nums[left] = nums[right].also { nums[right] = nums[left] }
        if (nums[left + 1] > nums[right]) nums[left + 1] = nums[right].also { nums[right] = nums[left + 1] }
        if (nums[left] > nums[left + 1]) nums[left] = nums[left + 1].also { nums[left + 1] = nums[left] }

        val pivot = nums[left + 1]
        var i = left + 1
        var j = right

        while (true) {
            while (nums[++i] < pivot) {}
            while (nums[--j] > pivot) {}
            if (i > j) break
            nums[i] = nums[j].also { nums[j] = nums[i] }
        }

        nums[left + 1] = nums[j]
        nums[j] = pivot
        return j
    }
}

class Solution {
    func sortArray(_ nums: [Int]) -> [Int] {
        var nums = nums
        quickSort(&nums, 0, nums.count - 1)
        return nums
    }

    private func quickSort(_ nums: inout [Int], _ left: Int, _ right: Int) {
        if right <= left + 1 {
            if right == left + 1 && nums[right] < nums[left] {
                nums.swapAt(left, right)
            }
            return
        }

        let j = partition(&nums, left, right)
        quickSort(&nums, left, j - 1)
        quickSort(&nums, j + 1, right)
    }

    private func partition(_ nums: inout [Int], _ left: Int, _ right: Int) -> Int {
        let mid = (left + right) >> 1
        nums.swapAt(mid, left + 1)

        if nums[left] > nums[right] { nums.swapAt(left, right) }
        if nums[left + 1] > nums[right] { nums.swapAt(left + 1, right) }
        if nums[left] > nums[left + 1] { nums.swapAt(left, left + 1) }

        let pivot = nums[left + 1]
        var i = left + 1
        var j = right

        while true {
            repeat { i += 1 } while nums[i] < pivot
            repeat { j -= 1 } while nums[j] > pivot
            if i > j { break }
            nums.swapAt(i, j)
        }

        nums[left + 1] = nums[j]
        nums[j] = pivot
        return j
    }
}

Time & Space Complexity

Time complexity: $O(n \log n)$ in average case, $O(n ^ 2)$ in worst case.
Space complexity: $O(\log n)$ for recursive stack.

2. Merge Sort

Intuition

Merge sort divides the array into two halves, recursively sorts each half, and then merges the sorted halves. The merge step combines two sorted arrays into one by repeatedly picking the smaller element from the front of each array. This divide-and-conquer approach guarantees O(n log n) time regardless of input order.

Algorithm

Base case: if the subarray has one or zero elements, it is already sorted.
Find the middle index and recursively sort the left half (l to mid) and right half (mid + 1 to r).
Merge the two sorted halves:
- Create temporary arrays for left and right portions.
- Compare elements from both arrays and place the smaller one into the result.
- Copy any remaining elements from either array.
Return the sorted array.

class Solution:
    def sortArray(self, nums: List[int]) -> List[int]:
        def merge(arr, L, M, R):
            left, right = arr[L:M+1], arr[M+1:R+1]
            i, j, k = L, 0, 0

            while j < len(left) and k < len(right):
                if left[j] <= right[k]:
                    arr[i] = left[j]
                    j += 1
                else:
                    arr[i] = right[k]
                    k += 1
                i += 1

            while j < len(left):
                arr[i] = left[j]
                j += 1
                i += 1

            while k < len(right):
                arr[i] = right[k]
                k += 1
                i += 1

        def mergeSort(arr, l, r):
            if l >= r:
                return
            m = (l + r) // 2
            mergeSort(arr, l, m)
            mergeSort(arr, m + 1, r)
            merge(arr, l, m, r)

        mergeSort(nums, 0, len(nums) - 1)
        return nums

public class Solution {
    public int[] sortArray(int[] nums) {
        mergeSort(nums, 0, nums.length - 1);
        return nums;
    }

    private void mergeSort(int[] arr, int l, int r) {
        if (l >= r) return;
        int m = (l + r) / 2;
        mergeSort(arr, l, m);
        mergeSort(arr, m + 1, r);
        merge(arr, l, m, r);
    }

    private void merge(int[] arr, int l, int m, int r) {
        ArrayList<Integer> temp = new ArrayList<>();
        int i = l;
        int j = m + 1;

        while (i <= m && j <= r) {
            if (arr[i] <= arr[j]) {
                temp.add(arr[i]);
                i++;
            } else {
                temp.add(arr[j]);
                j++;
            }
        }


        while (i <= m) {
            temp.add(arr[i]);
            i++;
        }

        while (j <= r) {
            temp.add(arr[j]);
            j++;
        }

        for (i = l; i <= r; i++) {
            arr[i] = temp.get(i - l);
        }
    }
}

class Solution {
public:
    vector<int> sortArray(vector<int>& nums) {
        mergeSort(nums, 0, nums.size() - 1);
        return nums;
    }

private:
    void mergeSort(vector<int>& arr, int l, int r) {
        if (l >= r) return;
        int m = (l + r) / 2;
        mergeSort(arr, l, m);
        mergeSort(arr, m + 1, r);
        merge(arr, l, m, r);
    }

    void merge(vector<int>& arr, int l, int m, int r) {
        vector<int> temp;
        int i = l, j = m + 1;

        while (i <= m && j <= r) {
            if (arr[i] <= arr[j]) {
                temp.push_back(arr[i++]);
            } else {
                temp.push_back(arr[j++]);
            }
        }

        while (i <= m) temp.push_back(arr[i++]);
        while (j <= r) temp.push_back(arr[j++]);

        for (int i = l; i <= r; i++) {
            arr[i] = temp[i - l];
        }
    }
};

class Solution {
    /**
     * @param {number[]} nums
     * @return {number[]}
     */
    sortArray(nums) {
        this.mergeSort(nums, 0, nums.length - 1);
        return nums;
    }

    /**
     * @param {number[]} arr
     * @param {number} l
     * @param {number} r
     * @return {void}
     */
    mergeSort(arr, l, r) {
        if (l >= r) return;
        let m = Math.floor((l + r) / 2);
        this.mergeSort(arr, l, m);
        this.mergeSort(arr, m + 1, r);
        this.merge(arr, l, m, r);
    }

    /**
     * @param {number[]} arr
     * @param {number} l
     * @param {number} m
     * @param {number} r
     * @return {void}
     */
    merge(arr, l, m, r) {
        let temp = [];
        let i = l,
            j = m + 1;

        while (i <= m && j <= r) {
            if (arr[i] <= arr[j]) {
                temp.push(arr[i++]);
            } else {
                temp.push(arr[j++]);
            }
        }

        while (i <= m) temp.push(arr[i++]);
        while (j <= r) temp.push(arr[j++]);

        for (let i = l; i <= r; i++) {
            arr[i] = temp[i - l];
        }
    }
}

public class Solution {
    public int[] SortArray(int[] nums) {
        MergeSort(nums, 0, nums.Length - 1);
        return nums;
    }

    private void MergeSort(int[] arr, int l, int r) {
        if (l == r) return;

        int m = (l + r) / 2;
        MergeSort(arr, l, m);
        MergeSort(arr, m + 1, r);
        Merge(arr, l, m, r);
    }

    private void Merge(int[] arr, int L, int M, int R) {
        int[] left = arr[L..(M + 1)];
        int[] right = arr[(M + 1)..(R + 1)];

        int i = L, j = 0, k = 0;

        while (j < left.Length && k < right.Length) {
            if (left[j] <= right[k]) {
                arr[i++] = left[j++];
            } else {
                arr[i++] = right[k++];
            }
        }

        while (j < left.Length) {
            arr[i++] = left[j++];
        }

        while (k < right.Length) {
            arr[i++] = right[k++];
        }
    }
}

func sortArray(nums []int) []int {
    mergeSort(nums, 0, len(nums)-1)
    return nums
}

func mergeSort(arr []int, l, r int) {
    if l >= r {
        return
    }
    m := (l + r) / 2
    mergeSort(arr, l, m)
    mergeSort(arr, m+1, r)
    merge(arr, l, m, r)
}

func merge(arr []int, l, m, r int) {
    left := make([]int, m-l+1)
    right := make([]int, r-m)
    copy(left, arr[l:m+1])
    copy(right, arr[m+1:r+1])

    i, j, k := 0, 0, l
    for i < len(left) && j < len(right) {
        if left[i] <= right[j] {
            arr[k] = left[i]
            i++
        } else {
            arr[k] = right[j]
            j++
        }
        k++
    }
    for i < len(left) {
        arr[k] = left[i]
        i++
        k++
    }
    for j < len(right) {
        arr[k] = right[j]
        j++
        k++
    }
}

class Solution {
    fun sortArray(nums: IntArray): IntArray {
        mergeSort(nums, 0, nums.size - 1)
        return nums
    }

    private fun mergeSort(arr: IntArray, l: Int, r: Int) {
        if (l >= r) return
        val m = (l + r) / 2
        mergeSort(arr, l, m)
        mergeSort(arr, m + 1, r)
        merge(arr, l, m, r)
    }

    private fun merge(arr: IntArray, l: Int, m: Int, r: Int) {
        val left = arr.sliceArray(l..m)
        val right = arr.sliceArray(m + 1..r)

        var i = 0
        var j = 0
        var k = l

        while (i < left.size && j < right.size) {
            if (left[i] <= right[j]) {
                arr[k++] = left[i++]
            } else {
                arr[k++] = right[j++]
            }
        }
        while (i < left.size) arr[k++] = left[i++]
        while (j < right.size) arr[k++] = right[j++]
    }
}

class Solution {
    func sortArray(_ nums: [Int]) -> [Int] {
        var nums = nums
        mergeSort(&nums, 0, nums.count - 1)
        return nums
    }

    private func mergeSort(_ arr: inout [Int], _ l: Int, _ r: Int) {
        if l >= r { return }
        let m = (l + r) / 2
        mergeSort(&arr, l, m)
        mergeSort(&arr, m + 1, r)
        merge(&arr, l, m, r)
    }

    private func merge(_ arr: inout [Int], _ l: Int, _ m: Int, _ r: Int) {
        let left = Array(arr[l...m])
        let right = Array(arr[m+1...r])

        var i = 0, j = 0, k = l

        while i < left.count && j < right.count {
            if left[i] <= right[j] {
                arr[k] = left[i]
                i += 1
            } else {
                arr[k] = right[j]
                j += 1
            }
            k += 1
        }
        while i < left.count {
            arr[k] = left[i]
            i += 1
            k += 1
        }
        while j < right.count {
            arr[k] = right[j]
            j += 1
            k += 1
        }
    }
}

Time & Space Complexity

Time complexity: $O(n \log n)$
Space complexity: $O(n)$

3. Heap Sort

Intuition

Heap sort uses a binary heap data structure to sort elements. First, we build a max-heap from the array, which places the largest element at the root. Then we repeatedly extract the maximum (swap it to the end) and restore the heap property. This process naturally sorts the array from smallest to largest.

Algorithm

Build a max-heap by calling heapify on all non-leaf nodes from bottom to top.
The largest element is now at index 0.
Swap the root (maximum) with the last unsorted element.
Reduce the heap size by one and heapify the root to restore the max-heap property.
Repeat steps 3 and 4 until the heap size is 1.
Return the sorted array.

class Solution:
    def sortArray(self, nums: List[int]) -> List[int]:
        self.heapSort(nums)
        return nums

    def heapify(self, arr, n, i):
        l = (i << 1) + 1
        r = (i << 1) + 2
        largestNode = i

        if l < n and arr[l] > arr[largestNode]:
            largestNode = l

        if r < n and arr[r] > arr[largestNode]:
            largestNode = r

        if largestNode != i:
            arr[i], arr[largestNode] = arr[largestNode], arr[i]
            self.heapify(arr, n, largestNode)

    def heapSort(self, arr):
        n = len(arr)
        for i in range(n // 2 - 1, -1, -1):
            self.heapify(arr, n, i)

        for i in range(n - 1, 0, -1):
            arr[0], arr[i] = arr[i], arr[0]
            self.heapify(arr, i, 0)

public class Solution {
    public int[] sortArray(int[] nums) {
        heapSort(nums);
        return nums;
    }

    private void heapify(int[] arr, int n, int i) {
        int l = (i << 1) + 1;
        int r = (i << 1) + 2;
        int largestNode = i;

        if (l < n && arr[l] > arr[largestNode]) {
            largestNode = l;
        }

        if (r < n && arr[r] > arr[largestNode]) {
            largestNode = r;
        }

        if (largestNode != i) {
            int temp = arr[i];
            arr[i] = arr[largestNode];
            arr[largestNode] = temp;
            heapify(arr, n, largestNode);
        }
    }

    private void heapSort(int[] arr) {
        int n = arr.length;
        for (int i = n / 2 - 1; i >= 0; i--) {
            heapify(arr, n, i);
        }

        for (int i = n - 1; i > 0; i--) {
            int temp = arr[0];
            arr[0] = arr[i];
            arr[i] = temp;
            heapify(arr, i, 0);
        }
    }
}

class Solution {
public:
    vector<int> sortArray(vector<int>& nums) {
        heapSort(nums);
        return nums;
    }
private:
    void heapify(vector<int>& arr, int n, int i) {
        int l = (i << 1) + 1;
        int r = (i << 1) + 2;
        int largestNode = i;

        if (l < n && arr[l] > arr[largestNode]) {
            largestNode = l;
        }

        if (r < n && arr[r] > arr[largestNode]) {
            largestNode = r;
        }

        if (largestNode != i) {
            swap(arr[i], arr[largestNode]);
            heapify(arr, n, largestNode);
        }
    }

    void heapSort(vector<int>& arr) {
        int n = arr.size();
        for (int i = n / 2 - 1; i >= 0; i--) {
            heapify(arr, n, i);
        }

        for (int i = n - 1; i > 0; i--) {
            swap(arr[0], arr[i]);
            heapify(arr, i, 0);
        }
    }
};

class Solution {
    /**
     * @param {number[]} nums
     * @return {number[]}
     */
    sortArray(nums) {
        this.heapSort(nums);
        return nums;
    }

    /**
     * @param {number[]} arr
     * @param {number} n
     * @param {number} i
     * @return {void}
     */
    heapify(arr, n, i) {
        let l = (i << 1) + 1;
        let r = (i << 1) + 2;
        let largestNode = i;

        if (l < n && arr[l] > arr[largestNode]) {
            largestNode = l;
        }

        if (r < n && arr[r] > arr[largestNode]) {
            largestNode = r;
        }

        if (largestNode !== i) {
            [arr[i], arr[largestNode]] = [arr[largestNode], arr[i]];
            this.heapify(arr, n, largestNode);
        }
    }

    /**
     * @param {number[]} arr
     * @return {void}
     */
    heapSort(arr) {
        let n = arr.length;
        for (let i = Math.floor(n / 2) - 1; i >= 0; i--) {
            this.heapify(arr, n, i);
        }

        for (let i = n - 1; i > 0; i--) {
            [arr[0], arr[i]] = [arr[i], arr[0]];
            this.heapify(arr, i, 0);
        }
    }
}

public class Solution {
    public int[] SortArray(int[] nums) {
        HeapSort(nums);
        return nums;
    }

    private void Heapify(int[] arr, int n, int i) {
        int l = (i << 1) + 1;
        int r = (i << 1) + 2;
        int largestNode = i;

        if (l < n && arr[l] > arr[largestNode]) {
            largestNode = l;
        }

        if (r < n && arr[r] > arr[largestNode]) {
            largestNode = r;
        }

        if (largestNode != i) {
            Swap(arr, i, largestNode);
            Heapify(arr, n, largestNode);
        }
    }

    private void HeapSort(int[] arr) {
        int n = arr.Length;

        for (int i = n / 2 - 1; i >= 0; i--) {
            Heapify(arr, n, i);
        }

        for (int i = n - 1; i > 0; i--) {
            Swap(arr, 0, i);
            Heapify(arr, i, 0);
        }
    }

    private void Swap(int[] arr, int i, int j) {
        int temp = arr[i];
        arr[i] = arr[j];
        arr[j] = temp;
    }
}

class Solution {
    fun sortArray(nums: IntArray): IntArray {
        heapSort(nums)
        return nums
    }

    private fun heapify(arr: IntArray, n: Int, i: Int) {
        val l = (i shl 1) + 1
        val r = (i shl 1) + 2
        var largestNode = i

        if (l < n && arr[l] > arr[largestNode]) {
            largestNode = l
        }
        if (r < n && arr[r] > arr[largestNode]) {
            largestNode = r
        }
        if (largestNode != i) {
            arr[i] = arr[largestNode].also { arr[largestNode] = arr[i] }
            heapify(arr, n, largestNode)
        }
    }

    private fun heapSort(arr: IntArray) {
        val n = arr.size
        for (i in n / 2 - 1 downTo 0) {
            heapify(arr, n, i)
        }
        for (i in n - 1 downTo 1) {
            arr[0] = arr[i].also { arr[i] = arr[0] }
            heapify(arr, i, 0)
        }
    }
}

class Solution {
    func sortArray(_ nums: [Int]) -> [Int] {
        var nums = nums
        heapSort(&nums)
        return nums
    }

    private func heapify(_ arr: inout [Int], _ n: Int, _ i: Int) {
        let l = (i << 1) + 1
        let r = (i << 1) + 2
        var largestNode = i

        if l < n && arr[l] > arr[largestNode] {
            largestNode = l
        }
        if r < n && arr[r] > arr[largestNode] {
            largestNode = r
        }
        if largestNode != i {
            arr.swapAt(i, largestNode)
            heapify(&arr, n, largestNode)
        }
    }

    private func heapSort(_ arr: inout [Int]) {
        let n = arr.count
        for i in stride(from: n / 2 - 1, through: 0, by: -1) {
            heapify(&arr, n, i)
        }
        for i in stride(from: n - 1, through: 1, by: -1) {
            arr.swapAt(0, i)
            heapify(&arr, i, 0)
        }
    }
}

Time & Space Complexity

Time complexity: $O(n \log n)$
Space complexity: $O(\log n)$ for recursive stack.

4. Counting Sort

Intuition

Counting sort works by counting the frequency of each distinct value, then reconstructing the sorted array by outputting each value the appropriate number of times. This is efficient when the range of values (max - min) is not significantly larger than the number of elements. It avoids comparisons entirely.

Algorithm

Find the min and max values in the array.
Create a count map to store the frequency of each value.
Iterate through the array, incrementing the count for each value.
Iterate from min to max value:
- For each value with a positive count, place it into the array the appropriate number of times.
- Decrement the count as values are placed.
Return the sorted array.

class Solution:
    def sortArray(self, nums: List[int]) -> List[int]:
        def counting_sort():
            count = defaultdict(int)
            minVal, maxVal = min(nums), max(nums)
            for val in nums:
                count[val] += 1

            index = 0
            for val in range(minVal, maxVal + 1):
                while count[val] > 0:
                    nums[index] = val
                    index += 1
                    count[val] -= 1

        counting_sort()
        return nums

public class Solution {
    private void countingSort(int[] arr) {
        HashMap<Integer,Integer> count = new HashMap<>();
        int minVal = arr[0], maxVal = arr[0];

        for (int i = 0; i < arr.length; i++) {
            minVal = Math.min(minVal, arr[i]);
            maxVal = Math.max(maxVal, arr[i]);
            count.put(arr[i], count.getOrDefault(arr[i], 0) + 1);
        }

        int index = 0;
        for (int val = minVal; val <= maxVal; ++val) {
            while (count.getOrDefault(val, 0) > 0) {
                arr[index] = val;
                index += 1;
                count.put(val, count.get(val) - 1);
            }
        }
    }

    public int[] sortArray(int[] nums) {
        countingSort(nums);
        return nums;
    }
}

class Solution {
private:
    void countingSort(vector<int> &arr) {
        unordered_map<int, int> count;
        int minVal = *min_element(arr.begin(), arr.end());
        int maxVal = *max_element(arr.begin(), arr.end());

        for (auto& val : arr) {
            count[val]++;
        }

        int index = 0;
        for (int val = minVal; val <= maxVal; ++val) {
            while (count[val] > 0) {
                arr[index] = val;
                index += 1;
                count[val] -= 1;
            }
        }
    }

public:
    vector<int> sortArray(vector<int>& nums) {
        countingSort(nums);
        return nums;
    }
};

class Solution {
    /**
     * @param {number[]} nums
     * @return {number[]}
     */
    sortArray(nums) {
        this.countingSort(nums);
        return nums;
    }

    /**
     * @param {number[]} arr
     * @return {void}
     */
    countingSort(arr) {
        let count = new Map();
        let minVal = Math.min(...nums);
        let maxVal = Math.max(...nums);

        nums.forEach((val) => {
            if (!count.has(val)) {
                count.set(val, 0);
            }
            count.set(val, count.get(val) + 1);
        });

        let index = 0;
        for (let val = minVal; val <= maxVal; val += 1) {
            while (count.get(val) > 0) {
                nums[index] = val;
                index += 1;
                count.set(val, count.get(val) - 1);
            }
        }
    }
}

public class Solution {
    public int[] SortArray(int[] nums) {
        CountingSort(nums);
        return nums;
    }

    private void CountingSort(int[] nums) {
        Dictionary<int, int> count = new Dictionary<int, int>();
        int minVal = int.MaxValue, maxVal = int.MinValue;

        foreach (int val in nums) {
            if (!count.ContainsKey(val)) {
                count[val] = 0;
            }
            count[val]++;
            minVal = Math.Min(minVal, val);
            maxVal = Math.Max(maxVal, val);
        }

        int index = 0;
        for (int val = minVal; val <= maxVal; val++) {
            if (!count.ContainsKey(val)) continue;
            while (count[val]-- > 0) {
                nums[index++] = val;
            }
        }
    }
}

func sortArray(nums []int) []int {
    countingSort(nums)
    return nums
}

func countingSort(nums []int) {
    count := make(map[int]int)
    minVal, maxVal := nums[0], nums[0]

    for _, val := range nums {
        count[val]++
        if val < minVal {
            minVal = val
        }
        if val > maxVal {
            maxVal = val
        }
    }

    index := 0
    for val := minVal; val <= maxVal; val++ {
        for count[val] > 0 {
            nums[index] = val
            index++
            count[val]--
        }
    }
}

class Solution {
    fun sortArray(nums: IntArray): IntArray {
        countingSort(nums)
        return nums
    }

    private fun countingSort(nums: IntArray) {
        val count = HashMap<Int, Int>()
        var minVal = Int.MAX_VALUE
        var maxVal = Int.MIN_VALUE

        for (v in nums) {
            count[v] = count.getOrDefault(v, 0) + 1
            minVal = minOf(minVal, v)
            maxVal = maxOf(maxVal, v)
        }

        var index = 0
        for (v in minVal..maxVal) {
            var c = count.getOrDefault(v, 0)
            while (c > 0) {
                nums[index++] = v
                c--
            }
        }
    }
}

class Solution {
    func sortArray(_ nums: [Int]) -> [Int] {
        var nums = nums
        countingSort(&nums)
        return nums
    }

    private func countingSort(_ nums: inout [Int]) {
        var count = [Int: Int]()
        var minVal = Int.max
        var maxVal = Int.min

        for val in nums {
            count[val, default: 0] += 1
            minVal = min(minVal, val)
            maxVal = max(maxVal, val)
        }

        var index = 0
        for val in minVal...maxVal {
            var c = count[val] ?? 0
            while c > 0 {
                nums[index] = val
                index += 1
                c -= 1
            }
        }
    }
}

Time & Space Complexity

Time complexity: $O(n + k)$
Space complexity: $O(n)$

Where $n$ is the size of the array $nums$ and $k$ is the range between the minimum and maximum values in the array.

5. Radix Sort

Intuition

Radix sort processes integers digit by digit, from least significant to most significant. For each digit position, we use counting sort as a stable subroutine. Since counting sort is stable, the relative order from previous digit sorts is preserved. To handle negative numbers, we separate them, sort their absolute values in reverse, and concatenate.

Algorithm

Separate numbers into negatives (converted to positive) and positives.
For each group, apply radix sort:
- Determine the maximum element to know how many digit passes are needed.
- For each digit position (units, tens, hundreds, etc.):
  - Use counting sort based on the current digit.
  - Maintain stability by processing from right to left.
Reverse the sorted negatives and negate them back.
Concatenate negatives and positives to form the final sorted array.

class Solution:
    def sortArray(self, nums: List[int]) -> List[int]:
        def countSort(arr, n, d):
            count = [0] * 10
            for num in arr:
                count[(num // d) % 10] += 1
            for i in range(1, 10):
                count[i] += count[i - 1]

            res = [0] * n
            for i in range(n - 1, -1, -1):
                idx = (arr[i] // d) % 10
                res[count[idx] - 1] = arr[i]
                count[idx] -= 1

            for i in range(n):
                arr[i] = res[i]

        def radixSort(arr):
            n = len(arr)
            max_element = max(arr)
            d = 1
            while max_element // d > 0:
                countSort(arr, n, d)
                d *= 10

        negatives = [-num for num in nums if num < 0]
        positives = [num for num in nums if num >= 0]

        if negatives:
            radixSort(negatives)
            negatives = [-num for num in reversed(negatives)]

        if positives:
            radixSort(positives)

        return negatives + positives

public class Solution {
    public int[] sortArray(int[] nums) {
        ArrayList<Integer> negatives = new ArrayList<>();
        ArrayList<Integer> positives = new ArrayList<>();

        for (int num : nums) {
            if (num < 0) {
                negatives.add(-num);
            } else {
                positives.add(num);
            }
        }

        if (!negatives.isEmpty()) {
            radixSort(negatives);
            Collections.reverse(negatives);
            for (int i = 0; i < negatives.size(); i++) {
                negatives.set(i, -negatives.get(i));
            }
        }

        if (!positives.isEmpty()) {
            radixSort(positives);
        }

        int index = 0;
        for (int num : negatives) {
            nums[index++] = num;
        }
        for (int num : positives) {
            nums[index++] = num;
        }
        return nums;
    }

    private void countSort(ArrayList<Integer> arr, int n, int d) {
        int[] count = new int[10];
        for (int num : arr) {
            count[(num / d) % 10]++;
        }
        for (int i = 1; i < 10; i++) {
            count[i] += count[i - 1];
        }

        ArrayList<Integer> res = new ArrayList<>(Collections.nCopies(n, 0));
        for (int i = n - 1; i >= 0; i--) {
            int idx = (arr.get(i) / d) % 10;
            res.set(count[idx] - 1, arr.get(i));
            count[idx]--;
        }

        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
            arr.set(i, res.get(i));
        }
    }

    private void radixSort(ArrayList<Integer> arr) {
        int n = arr.size();
        int maxElement = Collections.max(arr);
        int d = 1;

        while (maxElement / d > 0) {
            countSort(arr, n, d);
            d *= 10;
        }
    }
}

class Solution {
public:
    vector<int> sortArray(vector<int>& nums) {
        vector<int> negatives, positives;

        for (int num : nums) {
            if (num < 0) {
                negatives.push_back(-num);
            } else {
                positives.push_back(num);
            }
        }

        if (!negatives.empty()) {
            radixSort(negatives);
            reverse(negatives.begin(), negatives.end());
            for (int& num : negatives) {
                num = -num;
            }
        }

        if (!positives.empty()) {
            radixSort(positives);
        }

        int index = 0;
        for (int& num : negatives) {
            nums[index++] = num;
        }
        for (int& num : positives) {
            nums[index++] = num;
        }
        return nums;
    }

private:
    void countSort(vector<int>& arr, int n, int d) {
        vector<int> count(10, 0);
        for (int num : arr) {
            count[(num / d) % 10]++;
        }
        for (int i = 1; i < 10; i++) {
            count[i] += count[i - 1];
        }

        vector<int> res(n);
        for (int i = n - 1; i >= 0; i--) {
            int idx = (arr[i] / d) % 10;
            res[count[idx] - 1] = arr[i];
            count[idx]--;
        }

        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
            arr[i] = res[i];
        }
    }

    void radixSort(vector<int>& arr) {
        int n = arr.size();
        int maxElement = *max_element(arr.begin(), arr.end());
        int d = 1;

        while (maxElement / d > 0) {
            countSort(arr, n, d);
            d *= 10;
        }
    }
};

class Solution {
    /**
     * @param {number[]} nums
     * @return {number[]}
     */
    sortArray(nums) {
        const negatives = nums.filter((num) => num < 0).map((num) => -num);
        const positives = nums.filter((num) => num >= 0);

        if (negatives.length > 0) {
            this.radixSort(negatives);
            negatives.reverse();
            for (let i = 0; i < negatives.length; i++) {
                negatives[i] = -negatives[i];
            }
        }

        if (positives.length > 0) {
            this.radixSort(positives);
        }

        return [...negatives, ...positives];
    }

    /**
     * @param {number[]} arr
     * @return {void}
     */
    radixSort(arr) {
        const maxElement = Math.max(...arr);
        let d = 1;

        while (Math.floor(maxElement / d) > 0) {
            this.countSort(arr, d);
            d *= 10;
        }
    }

    /**
     * @param {number[]} arr
     * @param {number} d
     * @return {void}
     */
    countSort(arr, d) {
        const count = Array(10).fill(0);
        for (const num of arr) {
            count[Math.floor(num / d) % 10]++;
        }
        for (let i = 1; i < 10; i++) {
            count[i] += count[i - 1];
        }

        const res = Array(arr.length);
        for (let i = arr.length - 1; i >= 0; i--) {
            const idx = Math.floor(arr[i] / d) % 10;
            res[count[idx] - 1] = arr[i];
            count[idx]--;
        }

        for (let i = 0; i < arr.length; i++) {
            arr[i] = res[i];
        }
    }
}

public class Solution {
    public int[] SortArray(int[] nums) {
        List<int> negatives = new List<int>();
        List<int> positives = new List<int>();

        foreach (int num in nums) {
            if (num < 0) negatives.Add(-num);
            else positives.Add(num);
        }

        if (negatives.Count > 0) {
            RadixSort(negatives);
            negatives.Reverse();
            for (int i = 0; i < negatives.Count; i++) {
                negatives[i] = -negatives[i];
            }
        }

        if (positives.Count > 0) {
            RadixSort(positives);
        }

        List<int> result = new List<int>();
        result.AddRange(negatives);
        result.AddRange(positives);

        return result.ToArray();
    }

    private void RadixSort(List<int> arr) {
        int n = arr.Count;
        int maxElement = 0;
        foreach (int num in arr) {
            if (num > maxElement) maxElement = num;
        }

        int d = 1;
        while (maxElement / d > 0) {
            CountSort(arr, n, d);
            d *= 10;
        }
    }

    private void CountSort(List<int> arr, int n, int d) {
        int[] count = new int[10];
        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
            int digit = (arr[i] / d) % 10;
            count[digit]++;
        }

        for (int i = 1; i < 10; i++) {
            count[i] += count[i - 1];
        }

        int[] res = new int[n];
        for (int i = n - 1; i >= 0; i--) {
            int digit = (arr[i] / d) % 10;
            res[--count[digit]] = arr[i];
        }

        for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
            arr[i] = res[i];
        }
    }
}

func sortArray(nums []int) []int {
    var negatives, positives []int

    for _, num := range nums {
        if num < 0 {
            negatives = append(negatives, -num)
        } else {
            positives = append(positives, num)
        }
    }

    if len(negatives) > 0 {
        radixSort(negatives)
        for i, j := 0, len(negatives)-1; i < j; i, j = i+1, j-1 {
            negatives[i], negatives[j] = negatives[j], negatives[i]
        }
        for i := range negatives {
            negatives[i] = -negatives[i]
        }
    }

    if len(positives) > 0 {
        radixSort(positives)
    }

    return append(negatives, positives...)
}

func radixSort(arr []int) {
    maxElement := 0
    for _, num := range arr {
        if num > maxElement {
            maxElement = num
        }
    }

    d := 1
    for maxElement/d > 0 {
        countSort(arr, d)
        d *= 10
    }
}

func countSort(arr []int, d int) {
    n := len(arr)
    count := make([]int, 10)
    for _, num := range arr {
        count[(num/d)%10]++
    }
    for i := 1; i < 10; i++ {
        count[i] += count[i-1]
    }

    res := make([]int, n)
    for i := n - 1; i >= 0; i-- {
        idx := (arr[i] / d) % 10
        res[count[idx]-1] = arr[i]
        count[idx]--
    }

    copy(arr, res)
}

class Solution {
    fun sortArray(nums: IntArray): IntArray {
        val negatives = mutableListOf<Int>()
        val positives = mutableListOf<Int>()

        for (num in nums) {
            if (num < 0) negatives.add(-num)
            else positives.add(num)
        }

        if (negatives.isNotEmpty()) {
            radixSort(negatives)
            negatives.reverse()
            for (i in negatives.indices) {
                negatives[i] = -negatives[i]
            }
        }

        if (positives.isNotEmpty()) {
            radixSort(positives)
        }

        return (negatives + positives).toIntArray()
    }

    private fun radixSort(arr: MutableList<Int>) {
        val maxElement = arr.maxOrNull() ?: return
        var d = 1
        while (maxElement / d > 0) {
            countSort(arr, d)
            d *= 10
        }
    }

    private fun countSort(arr: MutableList<Int>, d: Int) {
        val n = arr.size
        val count = IntArray(10)
        for (num in arr) {
            count[(num / d) % 10]++
        }
        for (i in 1 until 10) {
            count[i] += count[i - 1]
        }

        val res = IntArray(n)
        for (i in n - 1 downTo 0) {
            val idx = (arr[i] / d) % 10
            res[count[idx] - 1] = arr[i]
            count[idx]--
        }

        for (i in 0 until n) {
            arr[i] = res[i]
        }
    }
}

class Solution {
    func sortArray(_ nums: [Int]) -> [Int] {
        var negatives = nums.filter { $0 < 0 }.map { -$0 }
        var positives = nums.filter { $0 >= 0 }

        if !negatives.isEmpty {
            radixSort(&negatives)
            negatives.reverse()
            negatives = negatives.map { -$0 }
        }

        if !positives.isEmpty {
            radixSort(&positives)
        }

        return negatives + positives
    }

    private func radixSort(_ arr: inout [Int]) {
        guard let maxElement = arr.max() else { return }
        var d = 1
        while maxElement / d > 0 {
            countSort(&arr, d)
            d *= 10
        }
    }

    private func countSort(_ arr: inout [Int], _ d: Int) {
        let n = arr.count
        var count = [Int](repeating: 0, count: 10)
        for num in arr {
            count[(num / d) % 10] += 1
        }
        for i in 1..<10 {
            count[i] += count[i - 1]
        }

        var res = [Int](repeating: 0, count: n)
        for i in stride(from: n - 1, through: 0, by: -1) {
            let idx = (arr[i] / d) % 10
            res[count[idx] - 1] = arr[i]
            count[idx] -= 1
        }

        arr = res
    }
}

Time & Space Complexity

Time complexity: $O(d * n)$
Space complexity: $O(n)$

Where $n$ is the size of the array $nums$ and $d$ is the number of digits in the maximum element of the array.

6. Shell Sort

Intuition

Shell sort is a generalization of insertion sort that allows exchanges of elements far apart. It starts by sorting elements at a large gap, then progressively reduces the gap. This allows elements to move quickly toward their final positions. When the gap becomes 1, it performs a standard insertion sort on an already nearly-sorted array.

Algorithm

Start with a gap of n / 2.
For each gap value:
- Perform a gapped insertion sort: for each element, compare with elements gap positions behind.
- Shift elements forward by gap until the correct position is found.
- Insert the element.
Reduce the gap by half and repeat until gap is 0.
Return the sorted array.

class Solution:
    def sortArray(self, nums: List[int]) -> List[int]:
        def shell_sort(nums, n):
            gap = n // 2
            while gap >= 1:
                for i in range(gap, n):
                    tmp = nums[i]
                    j = i - gap
                    while j >= 0 and nums[j] > tmp:
                        nums[j + gap] = nums[j]
                        j -= gap
                    nums[j + gap] = tmp
                gap //= 2

        n = len(nums)
        if n == 1:
            return nums
        shell_sort(nums, n)
        return nums

public class Solution {
    private void shellSort(int[] nums, int n) {
        int gap = n / 2;
        while (gap >= 1) {
            for (int i = gap; i < n; i++) {
                int tmp = nums[i];
                int j = i - gap;
                while (j >= 0 && nums[j] > tmp) {
                    nums[j + gap] = nums[j];
                    j -= gap;
                }
                nums[j + gap] = tmp;
            }
            gap /= 2;
        }
    }

    public int[] sortArray(int[] nums) {
        int n = nums.length;
        if (n == 1) return nums;

        shellSort(nums, n);
        return nums;
    }
}

class Solution {
private:
    void shellSort(vector<int>& nums, int n) {
        for (int gap = n / 2; gap >= 1; gap /= 2) {
            for (int i = gap; i < n; i++) {
                int tmp = nums[i];
                int j = i - gap;
                while (j >= 0 && nums[j] > tmp) {
                    nums[j + gap] = nums[j];
                    j -= gap;
                }
                nums[j + gap] = tmp;
            }
        }
    }

public:
    vector<int> sortArray(vector<int>& nums) {
        if (nums.size() == 1) return nums;
        shellSort(nums, nums.size());
        return nums;
    }
};

class Solution {
    /**
     * @param {number[]} nums
     * @return {number[]}
     */
    sortArray(nums) {
        const n = nums.length;
        if (n === 1) return nums;

        const shellSort = () => {
            let gap = Math.floor(n / 2);
            while (gap >= 1) {
                for (let i = gap; i < n; i++) {
                    let key = nums[i];
                    let j = i - gap;
                    while (j >= 0 && nums[j] > key) {
                        nums[j + gap] = nums[j];
                        j -= gap;
                    }
                    nums[j + gap] = key;
                }
                gap = Math.floor(gap / 2);
            }
        };

        shellSort();
        return nums;
    }
}

public class Solution {
    public int[] SortArray(int[] nums) {
        int n = nums.Length;
        if (n == 1) return nums;

        ShellSort(nums, n);
        return nums;
    }

    private void ShellSort(int[] nums, int n) {
        int gap = n / 2;
        while (gap >= 1) {
            for (int i = gap; i < n; i++) {
                int tmp = nums[i];
                int j = i - gap;
                while (j >= 0 && nums[j] > tmp) {
                    nums[j + gap] = nums[j];
                    j -= gap;
                }
                nums[j + gap] = tmp;
            }
            gap /= 2;
        }
    }
}

func sortArray(nums []int) []int {
    n := len(nums)
    if n == 1 {
        return nums
    }
    shellSort(nums, n)
    return nums
}

func shellSort(nums []int, n int) {
    gap := n / 2
    for gap >= 1 {
        for i := gap; i < n; i++ {
            tmp := nums[i]
            j := i - gap
            for j >= 0 && nums[j] > tmp {
                nums[j+gap] = nums[j]
                j -= gap
            }
            nums[j+gap] = tmp
        }
        gap /= 2
    }
}

class Solution {
    fun sortArray(nums: IntArray): IntArray {
        val n = nums.size
        if (n == 1) return nums
        shellSort(nums, n)
        return nums
    }

    private fun shellSort(nums: IntArray, n: Int) {
        var gap = n / 2
        while (gap >= 1) {
            for (i in gap until n) {
                val tmp = nums[i]
                var j = i - gap
                while (j >= 0 && nums[j] > tmp) {
                    nums[j + gap] = nums[j]
                    j -= gap
                }
                nums[j + gap] = tmp
            }
            gap /= 2
        }
    }
}

class Solution {
    func sortArray(_ nums: [Int]) -> [Int] {
        var nums = nums
        let n = nums.count
        if n == 1 { return nums }
        shellSort(&nums, n)
        return nums
    }

    private func shellSort(_ nums: inout [Int], _ n: Int) {
        var gap = n / 2
        while gap >= 1 {
            for i in gap..<n {
                let tmp = nums[i]
                var j = i - gap
                while j >= 0 && nums[j] > tmp {
                    nums[j + gap] = nums[j]
                    j -= gap
                }
                nums[j + gap] = tmp
            }
            gap /= 2
        }
    }
}

Time & Space Complexity

Time complexity: $O(n \log n)$ in average case, $O(n ^ 2)$ in worst case.
Space complexity: $O(1)$

Common Pitfalls

Using Naive Quick Sort Pivot Selection

Choosing the first or last element as the pivot without any randomization or median selection causes O(n^2) time complexity on sorted or nearly-sorted arrays. Always use randomized pivot selection or median-of-three to avoid worst-case performance on common input patterns.

Forgetting to Handle Negative Numbers in Radix Sort

Radix sort only works directly on non-negative integers. If you apply radix sort to an array containing negative numbers without first separating them, the algorithm produces incorrect results. You must handle negatives separately by converting them to positive, sorting, reversing, and negating back.

Stack Overflow in Recursive Implementations

Deep recursion in merge sort or quick sort can cause stack overflow on very large arrays. For production code, consider iterative implementations or ensure tail-call optimization where available. Some languages have strict stack limits that recursive sorting algorithms can exceed.